In physics, we keep track of how complex a system is by determining its “degrees of freedom.” In essence, this provides a guide for how many different ways something can change to create possible ...

There is an ever-increasing demand for accuracy in many manufacturing industries. Adding to this general need for higher accuracy is the fact that industry sectors such as semiconductors and ...

Light consists of electromagnetic waves that oscillate in time and propagate in space. Scalar waves are described by their intensity and phase distributions. These are the spatial (orbital) degrees of ...